SD 427 
.G8 R7 
Copy 1 



Vi 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



011 661 859 P 



GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 



FILIBERT ROTH, 

Chief of the Forestry Divmon of the General Land Office, 
Department of the Interior. 



[Reprint from Yearbook of Department of Agriculture for 1901j.] 



v^ 






-z- 






CONTENTS. 




Page. 

Introduction 333 

General discussion of the functions of forests 333 

The object of the reserves and the character of their forests 335 

Regulations for grazing in the reserves 336 

Present rules for grazing in the reserves 337 

Principles for future regulations for grazing in the reserves 337 

Extent of grazing in the reserves 339 

Methods of "running" stock and the effects on range and woods 340 

Sheep grazing 341 

Cattle grazing 347 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



XXXIIl. 



XXXIV. 



Page. 
Plate XXXII. Fig. 1. — An old burn as sheep range (Mount Rainier Reserve). 
Fig. 2. — Sheep in open-jiark woods of Yellow Pine ( Black 
Mesa Reserve) 336 

Fig. 1. — Old l)urn with dense growth of young pine, not used 
as range (Washington Reserve). Fig. 2. — Old burn in the 
Alpine region of the Cascades (Washington Reserve) 336 

Fig. 1. — Alpine park woods near Cowlitz Pass, on the crest of 
the Cascades (Mount Rainier Reserve). Fig. 2. — A situa- 
tion where the ground needs all the cover it has (Black 

Mesa Reserve) '. 336 

XXXV. Fig. 1. — Common sheep range (Black Mesa Reserve). Fig. 
2. — Sheep range about Mount Adams (Mount Rainier 
Reserve) 340 

Fig. 1. — Pine nibbled ))y sheep (Big Horn Reserve). Fig. 2. — 
Pine nibbled by sheep (Black Mesa Reserve) 342 

Fig. 1. — Sheep in open-park woods of Yellow Pine (Black 
Mesa Reserve). Fig. 2. — Conditions under which the seed- 
lings suffer ( Black Mesa Reserve) 342 

In the Gila Reserve, where grazing needs regulation 346 

Fig. 1. — Tall grass, where fire is apt to spread (Black Mesa 
Reserve ) . Fig. 2. —Sheep range in tall woods 346 



XXXVI. 
XXXVII. 



XXXVIII. 
XXXIX. 



GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 

By F I LIBERT Roth, 

Chief of the Forestri/ Division of the General Land Office, Department of the Interior. 

INTRODUCTION. 

In a consideration of the grazing problem in the forest reserves of 
the United States, it is necessary at every step to keep in mind the 
objects for which the reserves were set aside and the character, as 
well as the behavior, of the woods which exist on these several reserves. 
Since there appears to be still a great deal of confusion concerning the 
motives and objects which led to the formation of reserves, and also as 
to the character and behavior of forests in general, and the woods of 
the several reserves in particular, it may be helpful to review some 
of these points more in detail. 

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF FORESTS. 

When a farmer in Ohio or Indiana has a piece of woods on fairly 
level ground he has no good reason for keeping it as woods unless he 
considers the wood growing on the land to be as valuable as any other 
crop he might raise — a matter often difficult to decide. A farmer in 
Mississippi, on the other hand, may be induced to leave a patch of 
forest on a hillside, not because he cares much for the wood, but 
because, if the forest is cut away, the land will wash into a labyrinth 
of deep gullies and soon become utterly worthless for any purpose. 
In the former case the forest is merely for the crop it yields; in 
the latter it is for both crop and protection, and this case is far more 
common than is usually supposed. But while the farmer in Mississippi 
may use the forest to keep a piece of land from gullying, and thus use 
it as a protection against erosion, he cares little as to how this forest 
affects the flow of water or the climate, for he has ample rain and does 
not utilize the cre-ek or stream. With the farmer in Gallatin Valley, 
Montana, this is quite different. He takes what seems to be a desert 
gravel bar and by the use of 1 inch of water per acre^ he converts this 
arid ground into a farm and raises as high as 90 bushels of a superior 
quality of oats per acre. To him the little mountain stream is every- 
thing. Here the forest takes on another function; it holds the soil of 
the neighboring mountains and keeps it more pervious, and thus it 
regulates the flow in these important streams. The manner in which 
it does this w^ill be clearer from the following: Suppose we take a table 

' The inch of water here referred to is a miners' inch. Fifty miners' inches require 

a stream furnishinar 1 cubic foot per second. 

333 



334 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

and tilt it several inches, so that its top represents a slanting surface. 
If we sprinkle water on this surface, it is clear that the water runs off 
about as fast as it strikes the table. If the table is now covered with 
a layer of soil about 3 inches thick, and the sprinkling is renewed, 
some of the water runs off from the surface and some soaks into the 
layer of soil, so that if, after a time, we quit sprinkling there will still 
be water running off' from the table for hours. We have here then a 
"surface run-off"' and an "underground run-off'," and it is clear that 
the thicker the layer of earth, and the more pervious, the more water 
it would take up and the longer and steadier it would be giving off 
this underground water. 

The above statement shows exactly what happens all over the land, 
and is especially noticeable in the mountains. On the soilless, rocky 
slopes the water runs off' as fast as it falls or the snow melts, but on 
slopes with deep, pervious soils part of the water is stored and continues 
to flow" for months after the rain or the melting of snow has ceased. 

Returning to the experiment with the layer of earth on the table, 
we notice that if we sprinkle more briskly, part of the earth is carried 
awa}', the layer is eroded, and the storage ground is diminished. If 
covered by a layer of cotton batting this erosion stops, and in addi- 
tion we gain another very important point — the soil is kept softer, 
and allows w^ater to soak in more easily than when the cotton is want- 
ing, for then the water "pats" down; it hardens the surface where it 
does not wash it away. Much the same result might be obtained by 
sowing grass on the layer of earth, for then the tops of the grass 
would keep the drops from pounding the earth, form a mechanical 
obstacle to the surface run-off, and the roots would be an additional 
help in holding the earth and keeping it from washing awa3\ But 
the grass is small, its tops are short, open, and close to the ground; its 
roots are short; it rarely forms a dense sod, and, especially in dry 
countries, it leaves a large part of the ground without protection. 
Here, then, the larger, long-lived, deep-rooted trees, with dense, shad- 
ing crowns high above the ground, give fur better and more constant 
protection against erosion, and are far better able to keep the ground 
in a pervious condition, since the}" strew it annually with large quan- 
tities of leaves and twigs and provide a network of slowly decaying 
roots which keep the forest soil mellowed for a foot and more in 
depth. An upturned hemlock, spruce, etc., will readily illustrate 
how much of the ground is occupied by the roots of these forest trees. 

The trees, then, are in nature what the cotton is in the experiment; 
they help to keep the soil from being carried awa}-, they keep it soft, 
and they break the force of the downpouring rain. 

How much additional service trees perform by keeping sun and wind 
from the ground is well illustrated by the forests of the Lake States 
and Canada, where thousands of swamps have dried up and hundreds 



GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 335 

of miles of corduroy road have become useless, not by ditching and 
draining. l)ut by removing the woods and giving sun and wind access 
to the soil. 

In this connection, it may be well to mention a theory, sometimes 
advocated, which teaches that it would be better for water-storage 
purposes to have the forests removed in order that the snow may 
gather in large drifts, since, as it is claimed, it is these snowdrifts 
which supply the water of the streams throughout the dry summer 
season. This is not borne out by facts, for a study of the Big Horn 
Mountains and the Rockies of Wyoming, Montana, or Idaho will con- 
vince anyone that the few lingering snowdrifts of August have very 
little to do with the streams, and that it is the wooded and not the ])ald 
districts of each basin which serve as feeders and maintain the steady 
flow of water. The allied claim that snow melts more quickly in the 
forest than in the open is so palpabl\' inconsistent with actual experi- 
ence and simple physics that one might as well claim that the construc- 
tion of an ice house to cover the season's supply was unnecessary, 
since ice would last longer in the sun than under cover. 

Though there exist numerous forests in this country where the pro- 
tective function of the woods is not apparent, in the majority of cases, 
and in all mountain districts without exception, the forest serves both 
to supply useful material and to protect and improve the ground, and 
thereby regulate the surface and underground drainage. 

THE OBJECT OF THE RESERVES AND THE CHARACTER OF THEIR 

FORESTS. 

For the forests of the present reserves it may be said that the pro- 
tective function has been regarded as the more important. It is evi- 
dent, therefore, that efforts will be made to maintain and improve these 
woods in order to. continue to increase their usefulness in furnishing 
material, and still more in performing their protective function. This 
is the object of the forest reserves. The main purpose of the reserves 
is not exclusion, as is still so often claimed. They merel}' provide the 
means and men to give the much-needed care and protection which 
private enterprise at present could not afford and probably would be 
unwilling to furnish for a long time to come. 

Scattered over a wide range of country, from the British line to 
Mexico, with climates varying from cold to hot, from excessively wet 
to arid, in altitudes of from 1,500 to 11,000 feet, the forests of the 
several reserves differ widely. In the Black Hills a fine forest of 
Yellow Pine covers a broad expanse of high, rolling ground and hills, 
and serves chiefly as a valuable source of timber. In the Western 
Rainier a dense forest of ffne conifers on steep alpine ridges keeps the 
waters from carving the mountains into a waste. In the Big Horn a 
growth of pole-size Lodgepole Pine occupies a rough plateau, ranging 



336 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

from 8,000 to 9,000 feet in altitude, and helps to keep the useful streams 
from going dry. 

Similarly, these woods difler in their present condition. The valley 
of the Skagit in the Washington Reserve is almost an unbroken burn, 
and large burned-over areas, known as "burns,"' are scattered over 
the majority of the ridges of the east side of this same reserve. 
Similar conditions are met in the ]Mount Rainier, the Big Horn, the 
Priest River, and other reserves. In some cases these old burns have 
become reclothed with young forest trees, in others they are thickets 
of brush (species not trees), and in others they have changed to grassy 
pastures, often with little prospect of restocking under the conditions 
now prevailing. In some cases, as in the Big Horn Reserve, part of 
the extensive old burns are now so unmistakably prairie that it is 
difficult to prove that thev were CA^er woods. Generally, however, a 
search reveals some fragments of stumps, bits of charcoal, etc., which 
show that at some time, at least, these places were not altogether prairie, 
and that a return to a wooded condition may be looked for. Besides 
these parks or grass}^ openings and small prairies (probably all due to 
fire), which in the aggregate cover many thousands of acres, there are 
large tracts of forest, such as the Yellow Pine woods of the Black 
Hills, where the mature timber, in keeping with the habits of this kind 
of pine, no longer forms dense stands. Here the ground is but little 
shaded, and a vigorous growth of grass and weeds eagerly seizes upon 
every yard of available soil, and thereb}^ often prevents the starting 
of tree growth. (PL XXXII.) 

In other districts, where high altitudes tend to give an alpine char- 
acter to the land, tree growth naturally becomes more scrubby and 
broken, and, in regions like the Cascades, at the tops of the high 
ridges are grassy parks, covering many thousands of acres more or 
less interrupted b}' patches of scrub woods. Whether these grassy 
areas were ever entirel}^ clothed with woods, and whether, with any 
reasonable amount of care or protection, they can be made to reclothe 
themselves, is still in some cases uncertain. 

In general, then, the forests of the reserves are primarily protective 
forests, they differ from reserve to reserve, they are all more or less 
damaged by lires, and in all drj^ localities and at high altitudes they 
are interrupted by grassy areas, the majority of which have long been 
in their present condition, and will probal)ly require a long period of 
time before they are restocked with woods. (Pis. XXXIII and 
XXXIV.) 

REGULATIONS FOR GRAZING IN THE RESERVES. 

When the several reserves now in existence were created, the major- 
ity of them included districts which had been used for some time for 
grazing purposes, and the attempt to stop further grazing affected 
interests of considerable magnitude. 



Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901. 



Plate XXXII. 




Fig. 1 .— An old Burn as Sheep Range. Mount Rainier Reserve. 




Fig. 2.— Sheep in Open-park Woods of Yellow Pine. Black Mlsa Reserve. 



Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901. 



Plate XXXIII. 




Fig. 



1 .— Old Burn with dense Growth of young Pine '"too much 
Brush"), not used as Range. Washington Reserve. 




Fig. 2.— Old Burn in the Alpine Region of the Cascades (Little Reproduction 
AND poor Feed I. Washington Reserve. 



Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901. 



Plate XXXIV. 




Fig. 1 .—Alpine Park Woods near Cowlitz Pass, on the Crest of the Cascades. 
Mount Rainier Reserve. 




^ •- .i> 



Fig. 2.— a Situation where the Ground needs all the Cover it has. Black 

Mesa Reserve. 



GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 337 

PRESENT Rl'LES FOR GRAZING IN THE RESERVES. 

At present, the followino- rulino^of the General Land Office, based on 
the law approved June 4, 1S9T, and published in a circular, ''Rules 
and regulations governing forest reserves," November 6, 1900, govern 
in all affairs of grazing within the reserves: 

Pasturing of live stock. — The pasturing of sheep and goats on the public lands in 
the forest reservations is prohibited: Provided, That in the States of Oregon and 
Washington, where the continuous moisture and abundant rainfall of the Cascade 
and Pacific Coast ranges make rapid renewal of herbage and undergrowth possible, 
the Commissioner of the General Land Office may, with the approval of the Secretary 
of the Interior, allow the limited grazing of sheep within the reserves, or parts of 
reserves, within said States. And aho provided, That when it shall appear that the 
limited pasturage of sheep and goats in a reserve, or part of a reserve, in any State 
or Territory will not work an injury to the reserve, that the protection and improve- 
ment of the forests for the purpose of insuring a permanent supply of timber and 
the conditions favorable to a continuous waterflow, and the water supply of the peo- 
ple will not be adversely affected by the presence of sheep and goats within the 
reserve, the Commissioner of the General Land Office may, with the approval of 
the Secretary of the Interior, also allow the limited grazing of sheep and goats within 
such reserve. Permission to graze sheep and goats within the reserves will be 
refused in all cases where such grazing is detrimental to the reserves or to the inter- 
ests dependent thereon, and upon the Bull Run Forest Reserve in Oregon, and upon 
and in the vicinity of Crater Lake and Mount Hood, or other well-known places of 
public resort or reservoir supply. The pasturing of live stock, other than sheep and 
goats, will not be prohibited in the forest reserves so long as it appears that injury is 
not being done the forest growth and water supply, and the rights of others are not 
thereby jeopardized. Owners of all live stock will be required to make application 
to the Commissioner of the General Land Office for permits to graze their animals 
within the reserves. Permits will only be granted on the express condition and 
agreement on the part of the applicants tliat they will agree to fully comply with all 
and singular the requirements of any law of Congress now or hereafter enacted relat- 
ing to the grazing of live stock in forest reserves, and with all and singular the 
requirements of any rules and regulations now or hereafter adopted in pursuance of 
any such law of Congress; and upon failure to comply therewith, the permits granted 
them will be revoked and the animals removed from the reserves. Permits will also 
be revoked for a violation of any of the terms thereof, or of the terms of the appli- 
cations on which based. 

PRINCIPLES for future REGULATIONS FOR GRAZING IN THE RESERVES. 

In the future, the following principles, lately announced l)v the 
Secretary of the Interior, will be the basis of all grazing regulations 
in the reserves. The central idea is cooperation between the Govern- 
ment and the grazing interests in securing the best management and 
bringing about the best condition of the range. 

(1) The Government, through its forest officers, after consultation with the repre- 
sentatives of the various interests involved, should decide on the number of head to 
be grazed in each forest reserve, or each subdivison of a reserve, and should establish 
the boundaries between cattle range and sheep range. 

(2) The local association should assign ranges to owners within the limits thus 
laid down, subject to official apitroval. 



338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

(3) Both owners and local associations should ]_)e held responsil)le for the observ- 
ance of the terms of permits and the prevention of fire and overgrazing. 

(4) Each sheep owner should have the exclusive right to his range, and the same 
should ai)ply within reasonal)le limits to groups of cattle owners. 

(5) Permits should run for five years. 

(6) Residents should have precedence in all cases over tramp owners and owners 
from other States. 

(7) Local questions should be decided on local grounds and on their own merits in 
■each separate case. 

(8) Since the forest reserves are usually summer ranges, provision should l)e made 
for necessary routes of transit. 

(9) The policy of the Government should be based on regulation rather than pro- 
hibition, excei)t in sj^ecial cases, it being understood that the avoidance of overgrazing 
is equallv in the interests of all i)arties. 

Grazing of .sheep i.s permitted in parts of eight of the reserves. 
Cattle are allowed in all. Anyone wishing to use the reserve pastures 
must o])tain a permit. These permits are granted free of charge; the 
number of animals is limited, and the time of entrance into and exit 
from the reserve, as well as the district where they are to graze, is 
decided by the Department of the Interior. 

In carrjnng out these principles the rules now^ adopted are: Wher- 
ever an association of sheep men exists, which represents the majority 
of those who have for at least two years used the reserve pastures, such 
an association is recognized. Blank applications are sent to the secre- 
tary of the association, and he distributes them and gets them filled and 
.signed. He then transmits them to the supervisor, and the latter to 
the Department, when permit is issued. To set forth more definitely 
the requirements of the Department and the conditions of such a per- 
mit, the following appears printed on every application and permit: 

This application is also made with the understanding, and full agreement thereto, 
that penalties will be imposed for a violation of rules as follows: 

PERMITS CANCELED AXD REFUSED. 

1. For obtaining or attempting to obtain a permit on false representations. 

2. For willful trespass upon areas where not permitted, either on closed areas or 
the ranges of others. 

3. For setting out fires to clear range. 

4. For willful negligence in leaving camp or other tires. 

5. For refusing to observe promptly any direct order from the Department requir- 
ing an observance of any rule. 

OTHER PENALTIES. 

The number of sheep covered by a i)erniit to be materially reduced for the follow- 
ing stated causes, viz: 

1. For crowding onto a neighbor's range without the consent of said neighbor. 

2. For bedding sheep more than six nights in succession in any one place, except 
when bedding bands of ewes during lambing season. 

3. For entering the reserve prior to the date authorized. 

4. For remaining in the reserve after the permit has expired. 

5. For corralling within five hundred yards of a running stream or living spring. 



GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 



889 



6. For gross carelessness in leaving camp fires. 

7. For failure to aid in extinguishing a fire occurring within tlie range ()ccn]Med 
when possible to do so. 

8. And for such other minor violations of tlie rules as may ot'cur. 

9. For failure to remove sheep promptly upon order of forest officer when dam- 
age is being done to the range. 

10. For failure of herder to corral for count, upon order of forest officer or ranger, 
when number of sheep appears to be greater than the number covered by i^ermit. 

I also agree to forfeit the permit for a violation of any of its terms or of the terms 
hereof or whenever an injury is being done the reserve by reason of the presence of 
the animals therein. 

(Signed) • . 



EXTENT OF GRAZING IN THE RESERVES. 

The following tables show the extent of grazing in the reserves: 

Sheep grazing in the reserves in 1901. 



Reserve. 



Number 
Area in of sheep j Grazing season allowed 
reserve, 'allowed in for calendar year 1901. 
I reserve. 



Black Mesa, Arizona 

San Francisco Mountains, Ari- 
zona. 

Gila River, New Mexico 

Uinta, Utah 

Cascade Range, Oregon 

Big Horn, Wyoming 

Mount Rainier, Washington... 
Washington, Washington 

Total 



Acres. 
1,658,880 j 225,000 
975.360 125,000 



April 1 to December 1 , 
do , 



Number 
of per- 
mits i.s- 
sued. 



2, 327, 010 
875, 520 
4, 588, 800 
1,147,840 
2,027,520 
3, 426, 400 



225, 000 
200, 000 
200, 000 
150, 000 
250, 000 
25, 000 



January 1 to August 31 . 

July 1 to October 1 

June 15 to October 15. . . 
June 1 to September 20 . 
July 1 to September 25.. 



44 

i'54 

89 

■=6 



Number 
of sheep 
covered 
by per- 
mits is- 
sued. 



17f>, 44.5 
90, 700 

134, 320 
188, 050 
166, 050 
150,000 
249, 713 
25,000 



1,400,000 



387 1,180,318 



iFive additional applications covering the remainder of the sheep allowed arc pending. 
>> Tiiirty-four additional applications covering 99,400 sheep were rejected. 
■^ Sheep allowed only in Okanogan County. 

Cattle and horse grazing in the reserves in I'JOl. 



Reserve. 



Black Mesa, -Arizona 

Prescott, Arizona 

Grand Canyon 

San Francisco Mountains, 

Arizona 

Gila River, New Mexico 

Pecos River, New Mexico 

Lake Tahoe, California 

Stanislaus, California 

Sierra , California 





stock allowed to enter 
the reserve. 


Permits 
issued. 


Stock covered by 
issued. 


permits 


Area in 
reserve. 


Cattle. 


Horses. 


Cattle 
and 
horses 
com- 
bined. 


Cattle. 


Horses. 


Cattle 
and 
horses 
com- 
bined. 


Acres. 
















1,658,880 


2.5,000 


5,000 


30, 000 


97 


15, 618 


2,259 


17, 877 


423, 680 


2, .500 


1,000 


3,500 


9 


77 


15 


92 


1,851,520 


10, 000 


2, 500 


12, .500 


15 


505 


516 


1,021 


975, 360 


20,000 


.5,000 


25, 000 


110 


11,311 


3, 364 


14, 675 


2,327,040 


55, 000 


10,000 


65,000 


183 


41, 061 


4,618 


45, 679 


431,040 


10, 000 


2, 500 


12, 500 


147 


3, 7.57 


845 


4, 602 


136, 335 






"2,500 


13 

39 


1,780 

6,603 

24, 775 


205 
692 


1,985 


691,200 






a 8. 000 


7,295 


4,096,000 




a 30. 000 


180 


1,090 


25, 865 


Each hors 


c to cou 


It as tw 


-^ head of 


cattle. 









340 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Cattle and horse grazing in the reserves in 1901 — Continued. 



Reserve. 



Area in 
reserve. 



Pine Mountain and Zaka 
Lake, California 

Santa Ynez, California 

San Bernardino, California. . 

San Gabriel, California 

San Jacinto, California 

Trabuco Canyon, California . 

Battlement Mesa, Colorado. . 

Pikes Peak, Colorado 

Plum Creek, Colorado 

South Platte, Colorado 

White River, Colorado 

Fish Lake, Utah 

Uinta, Utah 

Bitter Root, Montana 

Flathead, Montana 

Gallatin, Montana 

Lewis and Clark, Montana . . 

Cascade Range, Oregon 

Black Hills, South Dakota 
and Wyoming 

Big Horn, Wyoming 

Teton, Wyoming 

Mount Rainier, Washington. 

Olympic, Washington 

Washington, Washington ... 

Total 



Acres. 

1, ("144,594 
145,000 
737,280 
555, 520 
7.37, 280 
109, 920 
858, 240 
184, 320 
179, 200 
6S3, .520 

1,198,080 
67, 840 
875, .520 
691,200 

1,382,400 
40, 320 

2,926,080 

4, .588, 800 

1,211,680 
1,147,840 
829, 440 
2, 027, 520 
2, 188, 800 
3, 426, 400 



Stock allowed to enter 
the reserve. 



Cattle. 



4,000 
5,000 
3,000 
20, 000 
3,800 



2,000 
2,000 
1,000 
7,000 
5.50 



(*) 

(»1 

(') 

(') 

(") 

{') 
47,000 

4,800 

7,500 
26,000 
61,000 

2,100 
10,500 

6,000 

7,000 

4,000 
27, 000 

4, 350 

7,000 
15,000 
2,000 
6,000 
1,000 
7,500 



Permits 
issued. 



434, 750 



20 
12 
18 
25 
16 

4 
149 
16 
43 
82 
1.54 

5 
60 

1 
39 

3 
52 
12 

166 
123 
32 
94 





1,921 



Stock covered by permits 
issued. 



Cattle. 



893 

38 

3,005 

266 

1.080 

210 

43, 065 

1,374 

3,686 

13,447 

40, 3.35 

370 

4,313 

400 

64 

125 

5, 968 

1,.535 

5, 720 

13,805 

1,742 

5, 689 

129 





Cattle 
and 
horses 
com- 
bined. 



40 
48 
40 
131 



252, 746 



3,931 

46 

229 

361 

1,968 

4 

7 



181 

20 



1,276 

1,179 

212 

240 



933 

86 

3,045 

397 

1,080 

21C 

46, 996 

1,420. 

3,915 

13,808 

42, 303 

374 

4, 320 

400 

245 

145 

6, 743 

1,.t45 

6, 996 
14,984 
1,954 
5, 929 
129 




24,302 : 277,048 



» Only the stock of settlers living within and immediately adjacent to the reservesalloweri therein. 

METHODS OF "RUNNING" STOCK AND THE EFFECTS ON RANGE AND 

WOODS. 

Being mostly high mountain eoiintrv, the reserve pastures can not 
be used throughout the year, but serve as summer range. The animals 
are wintered outside of the mountains, on a regular ""winter range," 
usuallv extensive, dry prairie country where the snowfall is not suf- 
ficient to prevent grazing. Some of these winter ranges are practically 
desert regions through the summer, lacking both feed and water. 
Others furnish enough of forage, but the feed is dry and there is no 
drinking water on large portions of the districts, so that grazing on 
such ranges is poor and is limited to the vicinity of water holes or 
streams. (See PI. XXXV.) 

Generally, these prairie ranges are less suited as summer pasture to 
sheep than to cattle, since the latter stand the dry feed and intense 
summer heat better than do the sheep. 



Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901. 



Plate XXXV. 




Fig. 1.— Common Sheep Range. Black Mesa Reserve. 




Fig. 2.— Sheep Range about Mount Adams. Mount Rainier Reserve. 



GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 341 

In the spring- of the year the live stock is driven to the mountains 
and held there until the fall or winter storms drive them })ack to the 
winter range. In this way the reserve and other mountain pastures 
serve a rather peculiar function, and the indirect value of these 
mountain pastures is often greater than the direct value. They not 
only furnish pasture for a certain number of head of stock for a certain 
period, but by serving as summer range they make it possible to use 
large, arid regions for winter range, and thus greatly extend the grazing 
industry. For instance, the mountains included in the Mount Rainier 
Reserve have for years furnished summer range for about 250,000 head 
of sheep and several thousand head of cattle. Since the summer range 
outside of the reserve is mostly occupied and since the winter range is 
too dry to be used during summer, it may be said that the reserve 
pastures are essential to the maintenance of the bands in this section 
of Washington. It follows that closing these pastures would lead 
either to a reduction of the bands by about the number enjoying sum- 
mer range, or to a radical change in the way of running sheep, and 
since these sheep represent a gross income of about $'2 to $2.50 per 
head a year, such a reduction would materiall}" atlect the income of 
these conmiunities until offset by the change just mentioned. With 
owners of cattle, usually farmers, near the lioundaries of reserves the 
same conditions prevail. In the case of farmers and stockmen living 
within the reserves, the pastures of the reserves are, of course, their 
only available range, and, in many cases, are of more value to the 
farmers than the farms themselves. 

Since the handling of sheep and cattle differs in many important 
points, the two cases are best considered separately, and since sheep 
grazing in the reserves is at present the more important of the two, it 
will be considered first. 

SHEEP GRAZING. 

Time of entering the range. — The sheep of the Western moun- 
tain regions (generally "grade" Merinos and coarse- wools mixed) 
are owned for the most part by residents of the counties in which 
the reserves lie. They are run in flocks or ''bands" of 2,000 to 
3,000 head, in charge of a herder who is assisted by a "camp tender," 
"packer," or "camp rustler," whose business it is to look up range, 
move camp, and "pack" in supplies, including salt for the sheep. 

The time of entering the reserves naturally varies with the climate 
of the particular district. In the northern reserves the herds are 
lambed and sheared before they begin their journey to the mountains, 
but in the southern reserves, as, for instance, the Black Mesa cf Ari- 
zona, the shearing commonly precedes the lambing, the latter taking 
place in the reserve, and in some cases the sheep are sheared and 
lambed in the reserve. 

Accordingly, the sheep enter the Black Mesa as early as April, 
while those of Mount Rainier do not reach the reserve line before the 



342 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

middle of June or the beginning of July, Similarh', the sheep of 
the Black Mesa remain in the reserve until Novemljer; those of the 
Rainier, Big Horn, etc, are driven out l)v the fall storms as early as 
from the middle to the end of Septem])er, 

Of late years a delinite time of entering and leaving the reserve 
has been prescribed for each reserve, according to location and other 
conditions, much to the improvement of the range and also to the 
general satisfaction of the better sheep men. 

Journey to the mountains, — In their journey to the mountains 
the sheep are usually obliged to follow certain natural highways, and 
their progress and the work of handling them is largely governed by 
the surroundings. Wherever possible, the sheep are allowed to travel 
sloAvly and graze as they go. Where these bands are ol)liged to move 
right along, as, for instance, in rocky defiles, patches of timlier, etc., 
where no feed exists, the band is held close, the sheep are ol)liged to 
crowd closely together, and inconsequence the trail takes on- some- 
what the appearance of a wide, nmch-traveled road. The small vege- 
tation is destroA'ed, the ground is worn into numerous rut-like trails, 
and the bushes and small trees along these trails are rubbed and nib- 
bled, and in some cases more or less barked and killed. Since these 
trails are connuonly 5() to 1(»() yards in width, they are very conspicu- 
ous, and since they usually serve for ordinary travel as well as for the 
sheep, thev are seen by many, and often, no doubt, the condition of 
the range, on the Avhole. is judged by these unsightlv trails. 

Where many ])ands travel the same trail and occupy the same sum- 
mer range there is considerable rivalry, and in crowded districts the 
journey into the mountains often becomes a regular race for the bet- 
ter camps, much to the detriment of the sheep and range. Before the 
time of entrance was dehnitely regulated, men would start early and 
follow closely upon the receding snow. The freshly shorn sheep were 
exposed to the severities of storms, and were exhausted by rapid trav- 
eling. The range suffered even more — the ground was still wet, the 
feet of the animals sank deeply, and the sod was cut and damaged. 
In addition, the grass had just started; it was still too short to make 
good grazing, and thus the sheep were induced to run, and required 
extra moving. In this wa^^ considerable areas in nearly all reserves 
were completely ruined. The result is that the mat of vegetation has 
disappeared and the ground is bare, 

A proper reduction of the number, the regulation of the time of 
entrance, and the division of the range have done much to prevent 
these injuries, and in some places a reclothing of such areas has been 
observed. 

Occupation of the range, — The manner of occupation of the 
summer range differs in different reserves. Thus, in the Big Horn 
the several bands oo wherever there is room and feed, the same band 



Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901 



Plate XXXVI. 




Fig. 1.— Pine Nibbled by Sheep. Biq Horn Reserve. 




Fig. 2.— Pine Nibbled by Sheep. Black Mesa Reserve. 



Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901. 



Plate XXXVll, 




Fig. 1.— Sheep in the Open-park Woods of Yellow Pine (Pine Seedlings sure 
TO SUFFER I. Black Mesa Reserve. 




Fig. 2.— Conditions under which the Seedlings suffer. Black Mesa Reserve. 



GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 343 

occupying any part in the opened portion of the reserve. In the 
Rainier the range is divided into sheep and cattle ranges, the sheep 
range being divided into tive well-detined districts, and each band of 
sheep receives a permit for only one of these districts. This measure 
has proven of great value by reducing the needless roaming of the 
numerous bands. In a few localities this division is carried a step 
further, and each man claims a certain territory or range by right of 
priority, in some cases reinforced by the fact that the stockman owns 
some lands within the range, including usually the best watering 
places, with some buildings and other improvements. 

Generally, the law of priorit}^ prevents one herder from crowding in 
on the range of another, but when the entire range is crowded and feed 
is short, as in dr}" seasons, necessity sets aside all established rules. 

The manner of grazing. — The grazing itself is quite similar every- 
where. In the morning the band leaves camp, spreads out when it 
reaches good feed, grazes for some hours, rests during the warmer 
part of the da3% resumes grazing, and toward evening returns to camp, 
where it is "bedded" on a piece of well-drained ground, preferabl}^ an 
open hillside. 

Where a camp is used for a considerable time, especially in the case 
of large bands, this daily return to the same bedding ground is one of 
the most objectionable features of sheep grazing in the mountains. 
On the bedding ground itself everything is destroyed, and the ground 
is covered with a deep layer of manure which, if the sheep are bedded 
near a stream, washes down into the stream during heavy rains, and 
therebv pollutes the water. 

In a fresh camp the sheep spread out at once in the morning and feed 
away from camp. But after some nights of bedding in the same spot, 
the ground about the camp ceases to have palatable feed, and the sheep 
merely travel over it, usually in a dense body, with from 10 to 50, 
traveling in the characteristic single tile. This soon cuts the ground 
and grass along definite lines, and in a couple of weeks there are dozens 
of rut-like trails leading in all directions from the camp. This natu- 
rally grows worse, and each day sees more of this cutting of trail than 
the preceding, since the distance becomes greater and greater. That 
this evil is Avorse with larger bands than with smaller ones, and that it 
is worse on the poorer and closer-cropped ranges and during unfavor- 
able seasons, is self-evident. 

If the camp is located near or in timber, this f recjuent, forced return 
to the same bedding ground leads the sheep to nuitilate 3'oung trees by 
nibbling and rubbing, even though they do not care for any part of 
the trees as forage. But what is even worse, the frequent march over 
the same ground by densely massed bodies of sheep necessarily destroys 
much .young growth, particularly in the seedling stage. (Pis. XXXVI 
and XXX Vll.) 



344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

In addition to the injuiy to range and woods, this persistent trailing 
back and forth to camps naturally affects, or rather disturbs, the sur- 
face conditions of the ground. Keeping in mind our illustration of the 
layer of earth on the table, it is clear that the cutting short of the grass 
cover, or the forest floor, has some influence on the run-off' of water, 
and that this influence invariabh' is to increase the rate of run-off, and 
thereby the power of the water to carry away the soil. That the many 
thousands of little trails, cut as they are in parallel lines along the hill- 
sides of every valley, naturally act as so many ditches, facilitate greatly 
the run-off, and establish definite lines of erosion, is equally clear. 

Herding. — In herding through the day, the sheep rarely go much 
more than one mile from camp, generally less. The herding itself 
depends mostly on the herder, but also on the character of sheep and 
range. Some men keep the sheep close together, and move them along 
while feeding; others allow them to spread as they please, and merely 
watch them to avoid loss from straying off and from wolves, etc. 
Where the sheep are held close, the strongest ones usually form the 
front and sides of the band, and get the pick of the feed, while the 
poorer ones in the center and rear must content themselves with the 
leavings. This naturally leads to restlessness, and involves much 
useless travel, which is still increased by the frequent use of the 
dog. At every turn the dog is sent to drive back, and ever}" time he 
does so the feeding of part of the band is interrupted, and there is 
more or less crowding and running, which in every case means 
trampling and destroying of feed instead of using it. It should not 
be inferred that this close herding is always a mere matter of dispo- 
sition or due to lack of experience, for such is not the case. During 
and just after lambing, in territory with many wolves, on old burns 
with much down timber, on very rough and rocky ground, in "'brushy" 
country, in some cases during storms, and in fact wherever it is impos- 
sible to see the sheep a long distance, and where there is danger of 
straying off, close herding is necessary, and a certain amount of this 
must, therefore, always be expected. 

Food preferred. — The feed in these mountains is usually divided 
into three classes — grass, ^'weeds'' (herbaceous vegetation other than 
grass), and "browse" (leaves and twigs of shrubs and trees). Most 
camps or ranges contain all three. Regular browse camps are the 
exception, and an all-grass range is rarelv satisfactory sheep ground. 
In feeding, the sheep loves varietv, prefers the short green feed, takes 
nea-rly everj'thing, and thus cuts clean and close. On nearly all ranges 
this close cropping, together with the trampling, kills out some of the 
less resistant grasses and other plants and leaves the ground to the 
more resistant. A common and well-known example of this is seen 
where the mountain bunch-grass is killed out, frequently leaving the 
ground more or less bare for some time, when the more resistant grasses 
restore the cover. 



GRAZING IN THE BOREST RESERVES. 345 

Generally, the sheep do not eat any of the conifers or real forest 
trees of these mountains. They nibble them and injure them by crowd- 
ing and nibbling- about bedding grounds and along trails, and they feed 
on young trees and boughs of conifers in cases of dire necessity, but 
by far the greatest injury to tree growth undoubted!}' consists in the 
ti-ampling of seedling trees. 

Some results of grazing on the ranges. — In all cases of grazing 
the range is cut close, and this close shaving of the vegetable cover, 
together with the loosening of the soil, especially on all hillsides, nat- 
urally results in an appreciable change of the surface conditions and 
consequent surface run-off. 

That lazy herding, where a camp is fairly "worn"' out, and that all 
overstocking, and consequent overgrazing, increase the several kinds 
of injury here pointed out, goes without saying. 

But while it is thus quite evident, therefore, that sheep grazing can 
never be conducted without more or less injuries, it is unfair to sup- 
pose, as has been too often the case, that grazing always results in seri- 
ous mischief, and should, therefore, be for))idden. 

To be sure, the bedding ground and trail are unsighth' wastes, but 
they form a very small percentage of the entire area and in many cases 
occupy rough, rocky waste ground, of little importance for any pur- 
pose. In addition, it nmst be stated that the best sheep men have given 
up the old method of bedding for long periods in the same place and 
are adopting the proper way, bedding only one or at least only a few 
nights in a place; also, that most of the ordinary bedding grounds 
rapidly recover and, when once reclothed with grass, far excel the 
surrounding ground, so that many of these old bedding grounds are 
conspicuous by the luxuriance of their vegetation. 

Similarly, the damage to the forest growth, even along the trails and 
about bedding grounds, has so far proven a serious permanent mischief 
only in a few special localities, such as parts of California and Arizona, 
where unfavorable peculiarities of climate and soil combine to resist 
the reproduction of the forest, and therefore need but little assistance, 
supplied by the sharp foot of the grazing animal, to prevent 3'oung 
growth altogether. In other localities, such as the Big Horn, the 
Rockies of Montana, and the Cascades of Washington, one meets some 
of the finest cases of natural reproduction of pine in the immediate 
vicinity of trails and l)edding grounds. Such cases demand consider- 
ation, and seem to throw much doubt on the sweeping statements com- 
monly made. 

In the same way the matter of aggravated erosion due to grazing 
seems often overdrawn. As above indicated, there is no grazing 
without disturbance of the surface conditions, and there are numerous 
instances on record where overgrazed areas (overgrazed by cattle as 
well as by sheep) have begun to "gulh','' and otherwise show serious 
siofns of mischief from erosion. Even in the many districts where a 



346 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

more resistant soil has so far held firm, and the general appearance is 
such as to mislead most men into the belief that no disturbance exists, 
a closer scrutiny usually proves that all badly treated, overgrazed 
areas have sutifered injury, and that a more general injur}- may be 
looked for in time. Nevertheless, it must be conceded that in several 
of the reserves the disturbance due to this cause is thus far insignifi- 
cant, and that it is reasonable, therefore, to suppose that with proper 
limitations grazing may be carried on without great damage. 

In judging the mischief done by sheep to the range itself, it is a 
common error to mistake a short-cropped range for a poor or injured 
range. Some of the older ranges, like the Red Desert of Wyoming, 
were on this account supposed to be "all killed out" more than fifteen 
years ago, and yet these very same ranges suppoil as many sheep as 
ever, and support them fully as well. Similarly, parts of the Cas- 
cades have been used, and used hard, for many years, but in spite of 
being closel}- cut, and in spite of the fact that the tall bunch grass has 
long disappeared, the bands do as well as ever. This fact is so well 
known that it has misled many of the stockmen into the l)elief that 
since it is true with them it must be true ever3^where. Such, how- 
ever, is not the case. In some of the California and Arizona districts 
the mountain range, like that of parts of the lowland prairies, has been 
destroyed 1)y overstocking, and there is good I'eason to believe that 
unlimited grazing, like unlimited lumbering, will result everj'where 
in general destruction of range as of forest. {PI. XXXVIII.) 

Firing the woods of the range. — A mischief far more serious than 
any above mentioned, nameh% that of setting fire to the woods, is 
often charged to the sheep industry, as though it were one of the nat- 
ural consequences of this business. How far these charges are based 
upon prejudice against the sheep industr}^ is diflicult to sa}'. To charge 
the sheep men with the many burns seems hardly fair, since the 
ungrazed portions of the same reserve often present as man}- and as 
extensive burns as do the regular ranges. Similarly, it seems to be 
now quite generally conceded that little, if any, benefit is derived from 
setting fire to the range, a practice quite common in the pineries of the 
South and elsewhere. Frequently it was argued that because many 
of the reserve pastures are located in ])urns it was fair to assume 
that these reserve pastures might be, and probably were, im]iroved and 
extended by fires. 

As matters stand, it would appear from observation and evidence 
that none of the reserve ranges are materially benefited by firing. 
Being mountain pastures, the feed is green; and being closely cropped, 
there is no need of removing tall dead grass, as is the case where firing 
is practiced. In dense, standing timber and windfalls fires usually 
produce sufficient heat to destroy all vegetation, and in addition leave 
the ground in such a condition that there is little or no feed for years. 
To set fire in such a place the herder endangers his camp outfit and 



Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901. 



Plate XXXVIll. 





Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901. 



Pi . f r V V V I V 




k 



CD r^ 





GRAZING IN THE FOREST RESERVES. 847 

sheep, loses a large amount of valuable feed, and can not hope to gain 
aiu' material benefit for a number of years, by which time he will in 
all likelihood have abandoned the particular range. 

While carelessness in the management of camp lires, etc., is possil)le 
with .sheep herders, as Avith other persons, it must be granted that 
their experience, together with their material interests, would natur- 
ally check and correct such deficiencies. In addition, it seems proper 
to state that the experience with fires in the Big Horn Reserve during 
the sumuier of 1000 clearly proves that with a cordial cooperation of 
sheep men and rangers, the former furnish a very desirable bod}^ to 
draw from in case of emergencies. Where it requires from two to 
four days to fetch men from bcA'ond the limits of the reserve, such 
assistance from the sheep men may be of the greatest importance. 

In denying the charges of firing the woods, the sheep men correctly 
point out that the closeh" fed park lands are less liable to be fired, and 
that in many cases fires have actually come to an end when reaching 
closel}' cropped sheej) ranges. (PI. XXXIX.) 

CATTLE GRAZIXU. 

As stated above, the grazing of cattle is not forbidden. The cattle 
are owned mainl}^ by farmers and small stockmen living near or in 
the reserve. Generally, and very properl}" so, a definite range is set 
aside for cattle, from which sheep are entireh^ excluded. Usually a 
number of cattle owners join in bringing their cattle into and out of 
the mountains. 

Like sheep men, the owners of cattle make application to the super- 
visor for the privilege of grazing their stock in the reserve. To resi- 
dents within the reserve whose herds do not exceed 100 head the super- 
visor ma}" grant the grazing privilege himself; all other applications 
he merely transmits to the Department of the Interior with his recom- 
mendations, and the permit is issued by the Secretary. As in the case 
of sheep men, preference is given to the different cattlemen in the fol- 
lowing order: (t/) Residents within the reserve; (5) persons owning 
farms or lands within the reserve; (c-) persons living near the reserve; 
(/'/) persons living distant from the reserve. 

Persons not residing in the State where the reserve is located and 
persons not citizens of the United States are debarred entirely. 

On the whole, the cattle brought from the plains dislike the moun- 
tains, and in many cases require to be kept there, either b}^ fences 
erected across the valleys or by herders, whose duty it is to drive 
them back, keep them scattered, and salt them. By far the greater 
part of the cattle in the reserves are not herded; they are merely 
turned loose in the mountain parks and prairies, salted at regular 
intervals, and otherwise left without care or protection. 

The cattle prefer the open parks, usually along the creeks; they 
dislike the deui^er woods, rough and steep ground, and high elevations. 
94184—02 2 



348 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

They feed chiefly on grass and refuse weeds, and take little browse (ex- 
cept in some of the southern reserves). Cattle feed less closely than 
sheep, and being free, each animal travels only when it wants to, mostly 
to and from water. They use much less of the entire area of the 
reserve, and take only a portion, often the smaller portion, of the feed. 

That cattle do no damage at all, as is so often claimed, is not trite. 
Cattle cut trails on all hillsides, particularly in the vicinity of water. 
They are filthy al)out watering places, standing often for hours in and 
about the water and trampling man}- springs into unsightly mires; 
occasionally they l)rowse; they bark trees bv rubbing, and they 
naturally trample seedling trees, just as anv other animal would. 
Being loose footed, there should l)e less trampling; but this is not 
always the case, since cattle by their very laziness are apt to stay more 
persistently on any given small area. That cattle do less harm to the 
range is only partly true. They crop it less closely, but choosing 
only grass and leaving the weeds, many a cattle range has been 
changed into a "weed patch."" That overgrazing and consequent 
increase of all injuries is possible with cattle as with sheep is self- 
evident, and has l)een fully established on a number of ranges. 

Numerous suggestions have been made for the restriction of grazing 
in the forest reserves. The most urgent and weighty of petitions of 
this kind come from the farmers in the vicinit}' of the reserves, who 
see in these mountain forests the protection for their all-important 
water supply. These petitions are fulh' considered each jeav in the 
allotments, and whenever the presence of sheep or cattle in these 
mountains appears to seriously endanger important agricultural inter- 
ests it is ])ut natural that the principle of the greatest good to the 
greatest number should prevail. 

For a bettor regulation of the grazing, it has l)een suggested that, 
at least for sheep, and preferably also for cattle, the ranges be subdi- 
vided as far as the mountainous character of the reserves permits, and 
that each stock owner lie allotted a well-defined range. This, as was 
correctly pointed out several years ago by Mv. Frederick V. Ooville, 
Botanist of the Department of Agriculture, in his bulletin on the graz- 
ing in the Cascade Reserve of Oregon, would induce the stockman to 
care for his range, to protect it against tire, and to improve it by seed- 
ing or otherwise, and would prevent heedless overgrazing. 

To carry out such a system would entail considerable additional 
expense upon the Government, and it has therefore been suggested 
that a per capita tax or rental should be imposed on all stock grazing 
in the reserves. 

Though there is still considerable opposition to such a system, it 
may be said that nearly all of this opposition to-day does not come 
from the resident, permanent stockmen, but comes mostly from men 
who run stock wherever there is open range, avoiding all responsibility 
and owning little outside of their herds. 



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